People and History

Alexander the Great and Spitamen

In the spring 329 BC heavily armed Greek-Macedonian army led by Alexander accomplished in fifteen days a hardest passage from Northern India across eternally covered with the snow Gindukush, and invaded the territory of Central Asia. Having got over the Amu-Darya, the Greeks moved towards Marakanda, and after a fierce fight seized the town. Having left there a garrison, Alexander the Great launched another campaign to the East, towards the Ferghana Valley. But the journey of the Creek conquerors proved to be not an easy one. The freedom-loving Sogdians put up strong resistance. Defending its independence, the people went in one and all. The bitter struggle went on in Sogdiana during three years. The centre of opposition was Marakanda. The uprising was inspired by the illustrious hero of Central Asian peoples Spitamen. In the spring of the year 327 BC Alexander besieged the fortress "Sogdian Crag" that was situated on the southern slopes of Hissar mountain range. The rebels put up strong resistance. "The Rock" was impregnable, and its defenders determined to fight to death. In reply to the offer to surrender they proudly said, "Let Alexander procure winged warriors for himself , who would be able to fly up on our rock". The Highlanders' challenge hurt Alexander's pride. He announced that those of his fighters who would manage to clamber up the rock, would receive a high award. The siege began. A group of warriors with an enormous difficulty managed to climb up the sheer precipice and attacked the defending party from the rear. The fortress yielded. Many women and children were taken prisoners. Among the captives there was the daughter of Spitamen's associate Axiart, a girl of astounding beauty, named Roxana. "Alexander caught sight of her and fell in love. He didn't desire to offend her, regard her as a prisoner and considered her worthy of a title of wife". Having married, her Alexander won the local aristocracy over to his side and thus consolidated his mastery over the Sogdiana. The heroic insurrection of Sogdians was brutally put down. A historian Quint Curtius describes Spitamen's death as follows: "Spitamen loved his wife passionately and took her everywhere with himself, and she was embitteredly enduring the escape and a new banishment. Weary of the distresses, she tried to convince him . But he responded he preferred death to captivity. On a feast, having gained sight of her husband got intoxicated and sunk into a sleep, the wife took out her sword that had been hid under her clothes and cut his head off him, and, splashed over with blood, she handed the head to her slave, the accomplice of the crime. Accompanied by him without changing her bloody clothing she appeared to the Macedonian camp... and handed Alexander Spitamen's head". The noble figure of the great leader of Sogdians who bravely struggled for the happiness of his people, went down to history covered with glory. Alexander the Great's early death (323 BC) brought about sanguinary internecine wars that led to a break-down of the empire, and to a formation of a number of separate states. About 306 B C the territories of Baktria, Sogdiana and Margiana became the part of the state of the Seleukids.

Invasion of Chingizkhan to Central Asia

    By the beginning of the 13th century from the tribes Hi and Tibet there was founded a feudal empire with Chingizkhan in head. By that time Chingizkhan, obsessed by the idea of conquering the world, having united numerous tribes of Mongols, begins his invasion to Central Asia. In his first campaign (till 1218) Mongolian troops headed by Chingizkhan's elder son Juchi conquered "forest peoples" lived on the bank of the Yenisey River. Uigurs submitted to Chingizkhan's authority, too. The general Khibulai joined the northern part of the Seven-River Valley. Chingizkhan himself made a campaign against the northern China and occupied Chzhunda (Peking) that was then the capital of Tzin State. In 1218 Chingizkhan starts a campaign against Kara-Chinese and Khorezm emperors. In 1218-1219 years the host of Mongols under the command of the Chingizkhan's general Jebe occupied Kara-China (Seven-River Valley and East Turkistan). In September 1219 Chingizkhan came up to Otrar where he divided his army to the three parts: one part of the troops under the command of his sons - Uktai (Ugadey) and Chgatai to siege Otrar; another part was given to Juchi and sent in the direction of Jend for the seizure of the towns on the bank of the Syr-Darya (Saikhun), and himself with his son Tuluy he headed for Bukhara. All of the three campaigns of the Chingizids' ended with success. After the conquest of Bukhara in April 1220 Chingizkhan occupied Samarkand, then Khojend (Khujand) where made a short pause before the campaign in the direction of Karshi steppe and Termez. After the sanguinary massacre in Karshi and Termez, Chingizkhan gets over the Amu-Darya and in 1221 captures the town Balkh. In the meantime his sons besieged the capital of the state of Khorezmshakhs Curganj (Urgench). In the beginning of 1222 Chinghizkhan's son Tuluy conquers Khorasan and Merv. Thus, Chinghizkhan having conquered all the Central Asia, expanded his empire. Later on, Chingizkhan divided his empire between his sons. The elder son Juchi, before as far back as 1207, got the "Forest peoples" as a domain. Those nations inhabited a vast territory from the lower reaches of the Selenga River to the Irtish. By the time of Chinghizkhan's death (1227) those lands were joined by the territory inhabited by Kazakhs and Kirghizs and the northern part of Khorezm. Possessions of the second Chinghizkhan's son, Chagatai, stretched from Uigur land (East Turkistan) to Samarkand from the south part of Altai to the banks of the Amu-Darya. The horde main forces of Khan Uktai were situated in Turbagat. The junior son Tuluy according to the custom of nomads, possessed the main lands of his father. The Maverounahr formed a part of possessions of Chagatai, but actually was possessed by Khan Uktai (1229-1241) who assigned Chagatai and his family part of the incomes obtained from Maverounahr. The break-down of the Mongol empire began early in the XV century. Having freed Central Asia from the Mongol yoke, Tamerlane forms a new empire -the empire of his own.

Tamerlane (Amir Temur)

    Tamerlane (lived 1330-1405) was the man of a complex, many-sided personality. He himself created his destiny and became a prominent historic figure. It was near Samarkand, in the town Kesh that later was given the name Shakhrisabz, or 'a green town', where in 1336 the chief of a small tribe got a son born. The boy was named Temur. The wounding of his right thing with an arrow made him lame. That is why he is known as "Lame Temur" or Tamerlane in English literature. Since his youth he appeared on the political battlefield as an active politician and military figure. Having become the ruler of Samarkand he built a great army and carried on many annexationist campaigns. Thus he expanded his empire that stretched from the Volga River and the Caucasian ridges in the west to India in the South-West. But the centre of the empire was in Central Asia. Tamerlane wanted to designate his hometown Shakhrisabz as his capital, but certain political reasons made him leave the status with Samarkand that had been lovingly called "Shining Star of the Orient". Tamerlane made an outstanding contribution to the national state system, education and culture; to the general development of his state. He promoted the construction of monumental historic buildings, especially in Samarkand. Some of them can be seen today . The inscription on the portal of Tamerlane's Palace Ak - Sarai in Shakhrisabz reads 'If you doubt our might, look at our buildings'. The impressiveness of the architecture was aimed at demonstration of the greatness of the empire. All possible means and every effort were exerted to construct these magnificent buildings. Vast range of building materials from the neighboring regions, famous architects, .suppliers, and a great number of workers were brought to work. Different specialists were taken from the occupied countries. During the whole 14th century there were a lot of experienced architects and artists gathered in Central Asia, most of them particularly in Samarkand. Skilled craftsmen from Iran, Azerbaijan, Khorezm, and India were never neglected being invited. Both foreign and local masters realized the great importance of the projects. They represented different arts and crafts which were mastered by others. They adopted each other's styles which combined to the new original one. Tamerlane's political status required to have friendly relations with leaders of different religions. Such relations were established by constructing mosques, medressahs, and especially mausoleums. Many of them, for example, Juma Mosque, Cur-Emir Mausoleum and Shahi-Zinda Architectural Ensemble, all in Samarkand, Dorus-Siadat Mausoleum in Shakhrisabz, Chashma-Ayub Mausoleum in Bukhara, and Hadji-Ahmad Jassaviy Mausoleum in Turkistan, passed the time-test and can be seen today.

Zakhritdin Muhammad Babur

Zakhritdin Muhammad Babur was born on 14 February 1483 in Andijan, in the family of the ruler of Ferghana Ulus whose name was Umar Sheikh Mirzo. At that time in Central Asia and Khurasan a fierce internecine wars between brothers, relatives,-descendants of the Great Tamerlane, -were fought. Zakhritdin being from his childhood in love with literature, art, nature's beauties, like all the princes -timurids was getting familiarized with the rudiments of that knowledge under the leading of eminent teachers in his father's palace. But his untroubled childhood didn't last long; in 1494, after his father's death, Babur aged 12, when sat himself on the throne of the ruler of Fergana Ulus, was forced to struggle for the Andijan's throne against his brother Jahongir Mirzo, uncles Sultan Ahmad Mirzo and Sultan Makhmud-khan and other feudal groups. To reconcile with the brother Jahongir Mirzo, Babur divided Ferghana Ulus and give away him sharp the half. Then Babur entered a struggle against with the feudal groups for Samarkand. The vanquisher, Shebani-khan, who possessed an enormous military strength compelled Babur to leave Samarkand. After the conquest by Sheibani-khan of Andijan in 1504, Babur set off south and set his rule in Kabul Ulus. In 1505-1515 Babur several times tried to get back to Central Asia. But these attempts proved to be futile. Later, on purpose to strengthening his power, for the space of the period of 1519-1525 Babur led aggressive struggle against India. In 1526-27 he conquered it. The power of "Baburid dynasty" known in Europe "Great Moguls" lasted in India more than 300 years. After that victory Babur didn't live long - died in the town Agra in December 1530; later, according to his testament his remains were carried by his descendants to Kabul and buried there. Babur for that short time he had been ruling the state promoted a stabilization of the political situation in India, unification of Indian land, improvement of towns, organization of trade relations, planting with trees, shrubs and gardens. Building of libraries, caravanserais was widely practiced especially in the years of his sons" and descendants" governing. The Central Asian style appeared in the arts and architecture of India. Javaharlal Neru wrote that after Babur's arrival to India big changes, had taken place there, the new reforms improved life, enriched, arts and architecture. Side by side with the enormous State affairs Babur performed literary-art activity in India and created his most exclusive work that became popular all over the world, "Baburname". "Baburname" is the book including not only historical facts but a unique information on economic, political and social aspects, nature and geography-the information that is of tremendous world importance in the capacity of a unique historical and literary heritage.

Abu All Ibn Sina (Avicenna)

    Abu Ali ibn-Sina (Avicenna) was born in 980-th year in the settlement Afshana near Bukhara in the family of a financial official. As early as in his childhood ibn-Sina along with his father arrived in Bukhara. He familiarized himself with Koran in his very early days, went the same into the Creek philosophy, geometry and Indian calculation. Ibn-Sina's scientific interests evolved in the two directions: in medicine and philosophy. By the age of seventeen he became a fully developed scholar and had a big prestige as a physician. Once he had been invited to the sick Nukh ibn-Mansur, who ruled Bukhara, and cured him. In reward the Ibn-Sina got the permission to use the palace library. After the overthrow of the Samanids and the capture of Buhkara by the Karakhanids (in 992 and 999 years) ibn-Sina went to Urgench to the palace of a Khorezm Shah where a good deal of prominent scholars was. At that time in Khorezm there ruled Abul-Abbas Mamun (999-1016 years) who patronized scholars, poets and painters. Ibn-Sina's philosophy expounded in the "Kitabash-Shifa" ("The book of healing") is a whole epoch in the history of oriental philosophy. However, it is his classic consolidated work on medicine that has created him a world reputation, "Kilab al-Kanun fit-Tib" (The canon of medical science). The translation of this work into Latin language was made in the end of 15th century among the incunabula. In one hundred years, in 1593, its Arabic original published in Rome. Then it used to be published many times up to 17th century and became one of the most popular works on medicine in the West. The west medicine was under a direct impact of the Canon. Of doctoring of ibn-Sina's there were composed legends. One of them runs that after the death he left his apprentice forty ampoules and ordered to do him daily infusions by one ampoule during forty days. When the apprentice infused the 39-th ampoule, he saw that the cheeks of the teacher's blushed pink, the lips turned crimson, hair and moustache blackened and it looked like he was on the point of opening his eyes any moment. The apprentice so much got agitated in the expectation of the resurrection that he dropped the last fortieth ampoule and it smashed up.

Al-Khorezmiy

    One of the most famous scientists of Khorezm and, possibly, of all the Moslem world was Abu Jofar Mohammed ben Musa al Khorezmi al Majusi al-Katrabbuli. He was born approximately in 783-rd year in the surroundings of Khiva in a village Rami. His ancestors were Zoroasterian exorcists. In 809 he was one of the scholars at court of al-Mamun, the ruler of the Eastern province of the Caliphate and the patron of the arts of Merv. In 819, accompanying al-Mamun who had become by that time the Caliph, al-Khorezmi went to Bagdad and lived in the suburb Kattrabbula up to the last days of his fife. In Bagdad the Caliph al-Mamun nominated him the head of the House of Wisdom, the first and largest scientific centre of the Middle Ages. The centre was later called the Academy of Al-Mamun. The observatories of the House of Wisdom carried out regular observations of heavenly bodies. Here was carried out exegetic and research work, and side by side with it, in different regions of the caliphate research expeditions were organized. Mohammed al-Khorezmi carried out coordination and leading of that work since 829. He wrote more than 20 research works. The most famous of them comprise "Concise Book of Calculus in Algebra and Almukabula". It was translated into Latin in twelfth century; its Arabic and Latin variants have been preserved. Al-Khorezmi wrote "A Book of Indian Calculus", the work known in the Latin version translated by Adelard Bat in the 12th century; he also wrote Zij-renowned astronomical tables. The tables were translated into Latin , and those Latin manuscripts remained preserved. Al-Khorezmi also wrote "The Book of Survey of the Orient" presented by one and only Arabic manuscript in Strasbourg, France, EU. The manuscript had been re-copied in 1037. Extant are fragments of "Book of history" in Arabic. These works of Mohammed al-Khorezmi, especially the ones on astronomy and mathematics, tremendously influenced the development of science and culture. In his "Book of Indian Calculus" the author for the first time in science describes the arithmetical operations of decimal positioning which are based on nine ciphers and zero, presently turned to account on a world-wide scale. He was the first to describe the conception taken down in Latin language as "algorithm" that signifies "a constant calculating process". Algorithm is one of the basic concepts not only in mathematics, but also in cybernetics. In the "Concise Book of Calculus on Algebra and Almukabula" al-Khorezmi was first to define and represent algebra as science. He submitted six canonical types of linear and square equations and also basic methods of solving them, the methods which are used up to now. The word "algebra" was Latinized from the Arabic word al-jabr that is evident from the Arabic title of the treatise. The word stands for "filling in" - one of the fundamental operations in algebra of that time. In the astronomical treatise Zij, al-Khorezmi took the meridian of Arina cupola for the initial meridian from which counting time was carried out. The cupola was identified with an Indian town Uzain (today it is Ujain in a state Uttar Pradesh - U. P., India, BCN). The theoretical fundamentals of Arina were reflected in "The Notion of the Earth" by Peter Aya (written in 1410, printed in 1480-1487 years). Christopher Columb also familiarized himself with that theory. Out of marginal notes of a copy of that book one can see that they considered it had cupola was identified with an Indian to be more that one cupola, even higher one, on the diametrically opposed side of the Earth, opposed to the Arina cupola. The search of the second cupola has led Columb to the discovery of the New World. Thorough going scientific ideas of al-Khorezmi's that had been expounded in his works contributed to the development of science in Europe.

Ulugbek

    After the death of Tamerlane internecine wars and feudal disturbances burst out. It ends with the victory of Tamerlane's son Shakhrukh, who chose his residence not to be in Samarkand, but in Gherat. He gave Maverounahr as a crown domain to his elder son Ulugbek (1394-1449 years). Forty years from 1409 up to his tragical death in 1449 Ulugbek ruled the country and it was in his times when Samarkand became one of the world centers of the science of the Middle Ages. In Samarkand of the first half of the 15th century around Ulugbek there arose a whole science school united prominent astronomers and mathematicians such as Ghiyas-ad-din Jemshid Kashi, Kazy-zade Rumi, Ali Kushchi. At that lime in Samarkand there lived a historian Khafiz-i-Abru who wrote a remarkable work on the history of Central Asia; a famous medical man Mavlono Nefis, the poets Siraj-ad-din Samarkand, Sakkaki, Lutfi, Badakhshi and others. Those were progressive people of that time who had faith in power of the human mind, and in power of science. There scarcely is any other town in Central Asia besides Samarkand, which underwent as many hectic events, upheavals, and oppressive ordeals as Samarkand and Samarkandians were fated to experience. The grand metropolis of Tamerlane, its wealth and greatness allured avid eyes of feudal conquerors and each of them considered for himself a big honour to seat on Samarkand's throne. Early in the 16-th century the Central Asian domains of Timurids were conquered by the nomadic Uzbeks. The chief of theirs was Mohammed Sheibani-khan (1451-1510). In the very beginning of the 16-th century Samarkand for a short term was seized by Ferghana feudal lord Zakhritdin Babur, In his renowned memoirs Babur has left a description of Samarkand of that time. "Samarkand is an amazingly beautiful town", - Babur writes, - "it has one peculiarity that can be found in a limited number of towns: each sort of a trade and of an industry is carried out in the special subdivision of stalls or workshops, that is to say, categories of craft, commerce and retail never mingle. A lovely custom. Here are good bake-houses and eating-houses. The best paper in the world is produced in Samarkand... There is one manufacture in Samarkand-the crimson velvet that they export to all the countries... Samarkand produces fine (and in a large amount) fruit: grapes, melons, apples, pomegranates; good are all the rest of the fruit. But especially glorious are Samarkand's apples and the "sanibi" (a variety of grape)".

Akhmad Al-Ferghani

    Abul Abbas Akhmad ibn Mohammed ibn Kasir al-Ferghani, a great astronomer, mathematician and geographer, is known in Europe under the name Alfraganus, and in the Orient -as Khasib that signifies "mathematician". There is an extreme scarcity of the biographical information of him that lasted hitherto, it is that solely his "nisba" FARGANI points to the fact that he was a native of Ferghana valley. Truly, the biographical information fails in being sufficient. But the scientific works of al-Fargani's for ever have immortalized his name, gained world wide reputation to him. Akhmad al-Ferghani was one of Ihe Pleiad of scientists of so-called "House of Wisdom", an establishment founded in the ninth century by the caliph al-Mamun. That large centre of science had another name, too: Al-Mamun's Academy. At first in Merv, thereupon in Bagdad, invited by him scientists from Khorezm, Fergana, Sogdiana, Shash, Farab, Khorasan carried on sciential investigation. There were opened the two observatories equipped with the best for that epoch astronomical instruments. Astronomers of Al-Mamun's Academy measured the circumference of the Earlh, the length of a degree of the terrestrial meridian, carried out observations for the starry firmament, compiled Zijs (the tables), were writing scientific works. At the time of his work in Egypt, he created his celebrated "Cairo Gauge of Nile, the Milometer" that was a measuring implement of the Nilotic waters which has not lost its scientific value up to present days: the Milometer had been being put to use up to the time of erecting the Asuan dyke. However, the principal work of Akhmad al-Ferghani has come down to us in three titles: "A Book of Celestial Movements, and the Summary of Science of the Stars", "The Thirty Elements", "Theoretical Computations on Sphere"; that treatise is one of first works in Arabic language on astronomy. The scientist gave in it a concise brief of astronomy, mainly on the basis of the work by an Alexandrine scientist Claudius Ptolemeus (the 2-nd century AD) "The Great Mathematical System of Astronomy". What is specially important, is that at the end of the book al-Ferghani placed a table of known geographical points having allocated them in accordance with the seven climates from the east westward with an indication of the coordinates. Thus, thanks to Ferghani, the westerners very early got a notion of the nature of astronomical researches of Mamun's academy. A great scientist of the Orient, al-Ferghani, not only did "re-check" the exactness of Ptolemeus' data, defined more accurately and corrected many other astronomical data that had appeared formerly, but also, proceeding from observations for heavenly bodies, did scientifically substantiate the globosity of the Earth, foretold the solar eclipse of the year of our Lord 812. In the twelfth century the "Book of Celestial Movements, and the Summary of Science of the Stars" was twice translated into Latin , in the 8-th century -into Castilian and Old French. In 1669 a Netherlands Arabist scholar and mathematician Jacob Golius brought about a new Latin translation a "A Book of Celestial Movements, and the Summary of Science of the Stars" was reputed in the Orient and especially in Europe as the encyclopedia of astronomical knowledge. A well familiar with the book of Alfraganus' was a great Italian poet Dante (1264-1321). His greatest work "The Divine Comedy" is much indebted to oriental sciences. The purgatory described in the Comedy is placed by the author on a mountain in the western hemisphere of the Southern hemisphere of the Earth. And, you see, it was al-Ferghani who, when studying the disposition of stars, arrived at a conclusion that there was an unknown continent in the west, and he gave a description of that continent's sky. The purgatory from "The Divine Comedy" is under the identical stars. An Italian cartographer Amerigo de Vispucci who had arrived in the end of the 15-th century to "India" discovered by Columbus, that is to say, to the south of the continent, saw the stars in the sky - the ones described by Dante. "We have arrived to the purgatory of Dante!", - he exclaimed. A continent being unknown to everybody up to that time was given an appellation of his name. So our compatriot, a great scientist of the Orient al-Ferghani has prophesied the discovery of America.

Abu Reikhan Beruniy

    Abu Reikhan Muhammad Akhmad al-Beruniy (lived 973-1048) was the great scientist of Khorezm. He was born in the South Khorezm town Kyat that later became the part of Khiva Khanate. A. R. Beruniy was an orphan. He was adopted and brought up by the famous Khorezm scientist of the 10"'-11" centuries Abu Nasr b. Irak. Already well-known as a scientist Al-Beruniy began his career serving at the court of Khorezm Shah in Kyat. But later he had to immigrate to the seaside town Kabusa in Vashmshir. In 1004 Al-Beruniy returned to Khorezm and worked at the court of Khorezm Shah Mamun in the town Gurganj till 1017. Khorezm of that period was famous for being the place where science and arts flowered. A group of scientists was organized to work at the court of Khorezm Shah. Among the members of the group were the scientists Al-Beruniy, Ibn Irak, Ibn Sino; the philosophers Abu Sahl Masihiy and Abul Khaiyr Khamar; the poet Abu Mansur as-Salibiy, and others. In 1017 Khorezm was occupied by the troops of Sultan Mahmud Gazneviy who captured Al-Beruniy and took him to his capital Gazna. There Al-Beruniy stayed till the last days of his life. He only visited his home-town Khorezm in 1025. Al-Beruniy is known under the name Alborona in Western Europe. The European scientists believed he was a Spanish monk. Al-Beruniy is the author of more than 150 works. About 30 of them remained. Mostly his works are about mathematics and astronomy. The most significant 'Memorials to the Past Generations' is the chronology of religious holidays of different nations including the Khorezmians. It also deals with the basics of astronomy and astronomic instruments. The Beruniy's work "Explanation of Acknowledged and Unacknowledged Indian Sciences by the Great Intellects" that is better known as "India" is the remarkable monument to science and culture. This work is a real encyclopedia of the country. While living among Indians AI-Beruniy learnt Sanskrit and obtained a lot of information on ethnography, geography, biology, philology, history, and astronomy from Indian scientific sources. He included all this information in his "India". "India" was translated into many languages including Uzbek, Russian, French, and English. The treatise was reprinted many times. Another big work by Beruniy is "Maasud's Canon" dealing with astronomy and mathematics. This work is dedicated to Sultan Maasud, Mahmud Gazneviy's son, who ruled in 1030-41. The treatise consists of 11 books containing history and traditions of different nations; information on geography, mathematics, astronomy, and astrology; comments by medieval scientists. Some Arabic manuscripts remained. The books were published in Arabic, Uzbek, and Russian. Unlike other works by Beruniy his "Basics of Astral Science" was written in two languages: Arabic and Persian. It contains 530 questions and answers on geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, geography, natural astrology, and history. The great scientist and big public figure AI-Beruniy significantly contributed to the development of the world's science and culture.

Alisher Navoiy

    Alisher Navoiy was born on the 9th of February, 1441. He grew up and perfected his poetry in Herat. Herat was the capital of the country called then Khorasan that included some parts of the present-day Central Asia, Afghanistan and Iran. The Herat of the middle 15th century was famous for being both a large political , cultural and literary centre . The distinguished poets Lutfiy (1366-1465 and Abdurakhman Jamiy (1414-92) lived and worked there. Alisher Navoiy's father served the rulers of the country and was a man of high standing . Young poet was brought up in the atmosphere of literary activities. Alisher Navoiy studied in different educational establishments of Herat, Meshkhed, and Samarkand. Since his youth he began to write poems that became very popular with people. One of his works we enjoy today in the collection of poems "Early Divan". In the 1483 A. Navoiy started his "Hamsa" (collection of 5 books). Within 2 years he completed this titanic work which included the philosophical-didactic treatise. "Confusion of the Just"; love-poems "Farkhad and Shirin" and "Leyla and Medjnun"; "Seven Wanderers" glorifying kindness, justice, devotion and humanism; and philosophical treatise about meaning of life "The Wall of Iskander". Besides lyric and epic poems Alisher Navoiy wrote a number of works concerning study of literature, philosophy, linguistics and history. Among them there are treatises, essays memoirs "Size Scales", "Elegant Collection", "Breath of Love", "The Beloved", "Opinion on Two Languages", "Selected Stories". All his life Alisher Navoiy combined literary activities with political ones. Being a man of high standing he significantly contributed to the improvement of social and economic life of the country; patronized sciences, arts, and literature; always tried to establish peace and harmony. Alisher Navoiy died on the 3rd of January,1501, at the age of 60.